​Energy infrastructure and energy ecosystems will look substantially different in the future.
The distribution system as we know it contains millions of miles of lower-voltage electrical conductors that receive power from the grid at distribution substations. The power is then delivered to 131 million customers via the distribution system. In contrast to the transmission system, the distribution system usually is radial, meaning that there is only one path from the distribution substation to a given consumer.
​Problems with the Current System:
Most U.S. transmission lines and substations were constructed more than 40 years ago and are based on old technology, but demands on the electric power system have increased significantly over the years.
For variable renewable electricity sources to make up 20 percent or more of the total generating capacity of the interconnection, increased flexibility will be needed in the electric T&D systems.
The solution to this problem could be virtual power plants (VPP’s) which already exist in Europe and some places in the United States and Australia.
One of the world’s first Virtual Power Plants operated in Germany around 10 years ago. The utility company RWE had nine small hydroelectric power plants that it wanted to operate as a group so that it could bid their combined output into the wholesale market. Today, Germany remains a leader in the implementation of Virtual Power Plants. Next Kraftwerke a German start-up networks around 4,800 medium- and small-scale power-producing and power-consuming units in central Europe.
A virtual power plant aggregates a portfolio of smaller energy generators and operates them as a unified and flexible resource on the energy market or sells their power as a system reserve.
The Internet of Things (IoT): smart meters, smart thermostats, and sophisticated management software —are the underlying hardware components enabling a virtual power plant (VPP).
Virtual Power Plants are designed to maximize asset owners profits while also balancing the grid. They can match load fluctuations through forecasting, advance metering and computerized control, and can perform real-time optimization of energy resources.
Additionally, the combined power generation and power consumption of the networked units in the Virtual Power Plant is traded on the energy exchange.
The participants of the Virtual Power Plant (VPP) are connected to the VPP’s central control system via a remote control unit. All assets are efficiently monitored, coordinated and controlled by the central control system. Control commands and data are transmitted via secured data connections with encryption protocols.
The Virtual Power Plant uses a special algorithm to adjust to balancing reserve commands from transmission system operators in the way larger conventional power plants do.
The bidirectional data exchange between the individual plants and the Virtual Power Plant provides real-time data on the capacity utilization of the networked units. The feed-in of wind and solar energy, the consumption data and electricity storage charge levels, can be used to generate precise forecasts for electricity trading and scheduling of the power plants.
By being aggregated in a VPP, the energy assets (solar, wind, battery, biomass, thermal energy)can be forecasted, optimized, and traded like one single power plant. That way, fluctuations in the generation of renewables can be balanced by ramping up and down power generation and power consumption of controllable units.
Individual small plants such as individual solar roofs cannot provide balancing services or offer their flexibility on the power exchanges. Their generation profile varies too strong and they do not meet the minimum bid size requirements of the markets. By aggregating the power of several units, a Virtual Power Plant can deliver the same service and redundancy and subsequently they can trade on the same markets as large central power plants or industrial consumers.
FOR MORE INFORMATION AND INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES PLEASE CONTACT VOLKMAR KUNERTH at KUNERTH@TOWERPOWER.CO

Sources:
Electricity Transmission and Distribution

Read "America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation" at NAP.edu
For multi-user PDF licensing, please contact customer service. Energy touches our lives in countless ways and its costs…
www.nap.edu
Virtual Power Plants: A New Model for Renewables Integration - Renewable Energy World
Today's global energy market is in the midst of a paradigm shift, from a model dominated by large centralized power…
www.renewableenergyworld.com
VPP explained: What is a Virtual Power Plant?
A Virtual Power Plant is a network of decentralized, medium-scale power generating units such as wind farms, solar…
www.next-kraftwerke.com
Why Virtual Power Plants Are Becoming a Reality
The world's electricity economy is shifting from an almost-total dependence on large, centralized power stations to a…
www.ge.com
What Will It Take to Build the Market for Virtual Power Plants?
Mark Dyson wants the energy industry to retire one of its favorite pieces of jargon. Dyson, a principal with Rocky…
www.greentechmedia.com

​What are solar cells?
Devices based on the photoelectric effect have several desirable properties, including producing a current that is directly proportional to light intensity and a very fast response time. One basic device is the photoelectric cell, or photodiode.
A solar cell, also called photovoltaic cell is a device that directly converts the energy of light into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. The overwhelming majority of solar cells are fabricated from silicon — with increasing efficiency and lowering cost as the materials range from amorphous (noncrystalline) to polycrystalline to crystalline (single crystal) silicon forms. 
A solar cell is a complex and precise organization of many different materials. The topmost layer of solar cells consists of glass with an anti-reflective coat. The glass protects the materials underneath it, while the anti-reflective coat helps more sunlight reach the semiconductors. When you look at a solar cell, you will see a small grid pattern. This is a grid of thin metallic strips beneath the glass. The glass, anti-reflective coat and metallic strips create the top layer of the cell.
The middle layer of the solar cell is the most important section. It is where solar energy is created through the photovoltaic effect and consists of two layers of semiconductors. The first layer is made up of n-type material. This is generally silicon mixed with small amounts of phosphorous, which makes the silicon negatively charged. The second layer is a p-type material. This material is positively charged, and usually made by mixing silicon with small amounts of boron.
The bottom layer of the solar cell has two parts. There is a rear metallic electrode directly beneath the p-type semiconductor. This rear electrode works with the metallic grid in the top layer to create an electric current. The final layer is a reflective layer to reduce the loss of sunlight in the system. Different solar cells may use different materials depending on their intended use and desired cost. They may also have additional layers to those already mentioned. However, all solar cells use this basic configuration.

ow is solar electricity produced and transmitted? 
PV solar panels generate direct current (DC) electricity. With DC electricity, electrons flow in one direction around a circuit.With AC (alternating current) electricity, electrons are pushed and pulled, periodically reversing direction, much like the cylinder of a car’s engine. Generators create AC electricity when a coil of wire is spun next to a magnet.
An inverter’s basic function is to “invert” the direct current (DC) output into alternating current (AC). AC is the standard used by all commercial appliances, which is why many view inverters as the “gateway” between the photovoltaic (PV) system and the energy off-taker.
Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types:
1.) String inverters:
Most small-scale solar energy systems use a string inverter, also known as a “centralized” inverter. In a solar PV system with a string inverter, each panel is wired together into “strings.” When they produce energy, it all gets sent to a single inverter, which is usually located on the side of the home, in a garage, or in your basement. The inverter will convert all of the electricity from solar panels into AC electricity.
String inverters are the lowest-cost inverter option.They are also the easiest to maintain, because they are in an easy-to-access location.
Using a string inverter, it will only produce as much useful electricity as its least productive solar panel. Electricity production for a system with a string inverter can “bottleneck,” or be dramatically reduced, if just one or two panels are in the shade or aren’t operating properly.
2.) Microinverters: 
Solar PV systems with microinverters have a small inverter installed at the site of each individual solar panel. Rather than sending energy from every panel down to a single inverter, microinverter systems convert the DC solar energy to AC energy on the roof.
Microinverters are more efficient than string inverters at converting energy. Systems with microinverters will still produce energy, even if one or two panels in the system are underperforming. Microinverters also make it possible to monitor the performance of specific panels, which makes it easier to identify production issues if they should arise.
Microinverters will cost significantly more than a string inverter, and can be more difficult to maintain or repair in the event of a problem because they are located on the roof.
In summary:

1.) Einstein's Explanation Of Photoelectric Effect: The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon where electrons are emitted from the metal surface when the light of sufficient frequency is incident upon. The concept of photoelectric effect was first documented in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz and later by Lenard in 1902.

2.) PV solar panels generate direct current (DC) electricity. With DC electricity, electrons flow in one direction around a circuit.

3.) An inverter’s basic function is to “invert” the direct current (DC) output into alternating current (AC). AC is the standard used by all commercial appliances, which is why many view inverters as the “gateway” between the photovoltaic (PV) system and the energy off-taker.

Sources:
solar cell | Definition, Working Principle, & Development
Solar cell, also called photovoltaic cell, any device that directly converts the energy of light into electrical energy…www.britannica.com
Photoelectric effect | physics
Photoelectric effect, phenomenon in which electrically charged particles are released from or within a material when it…www.britannica.com
Einstein and the Photoelectric effect
Copyright © Michael Richmond. This work is licensed under aCreative Commons License.So, Planck could reproduce the…spiff.rit.edu
What are solar cells? - RGS Energy
Solar cells are used to capture solar energy and create electricity in most solar panels. The solar panels you most…rgsenergy.com
What is Solar Energy and How Do Solar Panels Work?
Solar energy works by capturing the sun's energy and turning it into electricity for your home or business. Our sun is…us.sunpower.com
Solar Power: Generation and Transmission
There are a range of renewable energy options that will be taken forward in years to come. PwC's view is that the world…www.pwc.coma
Author: Volkmar Kunerth, kunerth@towerpower.co, www.towerpower.co

​The African power market is critically underdeveloped. Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has the lowest electrification rates in the world with only about 40% of the population having access to grid electricity, leaving over 600 million people without access. In addition, in many places where there is access to grid electricity infrastructure, the supply is highly unreliable with frequent outages.

Mission Critical Sites (MCS), hospitals, health clinics and telco towers, are still heavily reliant on diesel generated power which is expensive, unreliable and polluting. Most cell phone towers (approximately 240,000) are either off-grid or have bad grid connections. 66% of hospitals do not have reliable electricity access. 80% of schools have no electricity at all.

70% of the population of SSA have mobile phone coverage, meaning more than 300 million people (the vast majority of whom live in remote rural locations) are still without coverage. The GSMA predicts that an additional 85,000 towers will need to be built by 2020 to extend coverage to these areas.

Mobile operators face huge challenges to power their existing networks, both off-grid and on-grid. Diesel accounts for up to 40% of OPEX (the total amount of fossil fuels consumed by towers is estimated at 58 million barrels per year at a cost of $8 billion USD) and on top of this there is the cost of frequent generator maintenance, and replacement every 2 years. The very high cost of energy means a higher cost of mobile service for subscribers, and so this directly affects affordability of vital mobile phone service for many of the poorest people in the world.

Our main social impact objectives are access to energy, access to clean water, access to education, and access to information. Our environmental impact objectives are natural resource conservation, and pollution prevention (GHG emissions). We aim to generate measurable financial, environmental and social returns beyond comparable industry standards. Our sustainable energy metrics are: reducing CO2 output per installation by a least 60% per site per year; reducing diesel usage by at least 75% per site per year. Our social benefit metrics are: at least 50% of our labor force will be from local villages; employees will be provided with living-wages, health benefits, education programs and company training; schools and hospitals connected to our microgrids will be provided with free internet access.

Tower Power is an independent power provider that equips cell phone towers with renewable energy generation, storage and software intelligence to significantly reduce costs and CO2 emissions. Wherever possible, we will use the tower power to create a microgrid to provide electricity to neighbouring hospitals/ health clinics, schools and villages.

FOR MORE INFORMATION AND INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES PLEASE CONTACT VOLKMAR KUNERTH at KUNERTH@TOWERPOWER.CO

​